Health Concerns in Purebred Cats A Breed-Specific Guide

Health Concerns in Purebred Cats

Purebred cats, while often admired for their distinctive looks, are unfortunately predisposed to a range of health issues not commonly seen in mixed-breed cats. This increased risk stems from the concentrated genetic pool inherent in breeding programs focused on specific traits. Understanding these breed-specific health problems is crucial for responsible cat ownership and ethical breeding practices.

Genetic factors play a significant role in the development of these health concerns. Selective breeding, while aiming for desirable physical characteristics, can inadvertently concentrate deleterious recessive genes. This means that certain genetic mutations, which might be diluted in a diverse gene pool, become more prevalent in purebred lines, leading to a higher incidence of inherited diseases. The more closely related the breeding cats, the greater the risk of these recessive genes combining and manifesting as health problems in their offspring.

Genetic Factors and Breed-Specific Diseases

The impact of genetic factors varies widely across different breeds. For example, Persians are prone to polycystic kidney disease (PKD), a debilitating condition affecting their kidneys. Certain breeds like Maine Coons have a higher risk of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM), a serious heart condition. Similarly, Scottish Folds are predisposed to osteochondrodysplasia, a cartilage disorder affecting their joints. These are just a few examples; many other breeds face unique genetic health challenges. Breeders often utilize genetic testing to identify carriers of these diseases, helping to mitigate the risk of producing affected kittens. However, even with testing, the complete eradication of these genetic predispositions is challenging.

Ethical Considerations in Purebred Cat Breeding

Ethical breeding practices are paramount in minimizing the health risks associated with purebred cats. Responsible breeders prioritize the health and well-being of their cats above all else. This includes thorough genetic testing, careful selection of breeding pairs, and avoiding inbreeding to reduce the risk of genetic disorders. Transparency with potential buyers about known breed-specific health issues is also crucial. Unfortunately, some breeders prioritize aesthetics over health, leading to an increase in the prevalence of these debilitating conditions. This not only impacts the individual cat’s quality of life but also contributes to the perpetuation of health problems within the breed. The ethical dilemma lies in balancing the desire for specific physical traits with the responsibility to ensure the health and welfare of the animals. Organizations like the Cat Fanciers’ Association (CFA) promote responsible breeding practices and provide guidelines to help breeders make informed decisions. However, enforcement and adherence to these guidelines remain a continuous challenge.

Common Health Issues by Breed

Purebred cats, while often stunning in appearance, carry a higher risk of inheriting specific health problems due to limited gene pools. Understanding these breed-specific predispositions is crucial for responsible ownership, allowing for proactive preventative care and early detection of potential issues. This information empowers cat owners to make informed decisions about their pet’s health and well-being.

Breed-Specific Health Concerns

The following table summarizes common health issues affecting several popular purebred cat breeds. Remember, this is not an exhaustive list, and individual cats may experience varying degrees of severity. Always consult with your veterinarian for accurate diagnosis and personalized treatment plans.

Breed	Common Health Issue	Symptoms	Treatment
Persian	Polycystic Kidney Disease (PKD)	Increased thirst and urination, lethargy, weight loss, vomiting	Managing symptoms with medication, fluid therapy, and dietary adjustments. No cure exists.
Maine Coon	Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy (HCM)	Often asymptomatic initially; later stages may show shortness of breath, lethargy, and fainting.	Medication to manage symptoms, lifestyle adjustments to reduce stress on the heart.
Siamese	Amyloidosis	Weight loss, lethargy, abdominal swelling, jaundice	Treatment focuses on managing symptoms and improving quality of life; no cure.
Scottish Fold	Osteochondrodysplasia	Joint stiffness, arthritis, limited range of motion, lameness	Pain management, physical therapy, and in some cases, surgery.

Genetic Predisposition and Preventative Measures

Many of these conditions have a strong genetic component. For example, PKD in Persians is caused by a single gene mutation, making it highly heritable. Similarly, HCM in Maine Coons has a significant genetic basis. Responsible breeders screen their breeding cats for these genetic diseases to minimize the risk of passing them on to their kittens.

Preventative measures include regular veterinary check-ups, including blood work and echocardiograms (especially for HCM), to detect problems early. Maintaining a healthy weight, providing a balanced diet, and minimizing stress can also help prevent or manage some of these conditions. Early detection is key; many conditions are more manageable if diagnosed and treated early. For instance, early detection of HCM allows for lifestyle modifications and medication to slow disease progression.

Cardiomyopathies in Purebred Cats

Cardiomyopathies represent a significant health concern in purebred cats, encompassing a range of heart muscle diseases that can severely impact cardiac function. These conditions vary in their presentation, underlying mechanisms, and ultimately, prognosis. Understanding the different types, their symptoms, and diagnostic approaches is crucial for effective veterinary intervention and improved feline well-being.

Types of Cardiomyopathies in Purebred Cats

Several types of cardiomyopathy affect purebred cats, each with unique characteristics. The most common are hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM), dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM), and restrictive cardiomyopathy (RCM). While HCM is the most prevalent, the incidence of each varies across breeds. Genetic predisposition plays a significant role in the development of these conditions.

Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy (HCM) in Purebred Cats

HCM is characterized by a thickening of the heart muscle, particularly the left ventricle. This thickening can impede the heart’s ability to pump blood effectively. Maine Coons, Ragdolls, and Persians are among the breeds with a higher prevalence of HCM. Symptoms can range from subtle to severe, including shortness of breath, exercise intolerance, fainting, and sudden death. The prognosis varies depending on the severity of the thickening and the presence of complications like heart valve disease or arrhythmias. Early diagnosis and management, often involving medications to control heart rate and rhythm, are essential for improving the cat’s quality of life and extending its lifespan.

Dilated Cardiomyopathy (DCM) in Purebred Cats

DCM involves the weakening and enlargement of the heart’s chambers, reducing its ability to pump blood efficiently. This condition is less common than HCM but can be seen in breeds like the American Shorthair and Abyssinian. Symptoms often include lethargy, weakness, coughing, and weight loss. Advanced stages may present with fluid accumulation in the abdomen (ascites) or lungs (pulmonary edema). The prognosis for DCM can be guarded, with treatment focused on managing symptoms and supporting heart function. Treatment often involves medications to support heart function and manage fluid retention.

Restrictive Cardiomyopathy (RCM) in Purebred Cats

RCM is a less frequently diagnosed cardiomyopathy characterized by the stiffening of the heart muscle, hindering its ability to fill properly with blood. The exact breed predispositions are less well-defined compared to HCM and DCM. Symptoms are often subtle initially, but as the condition progresses, cats may experience shortness of breath, fatigue, and abdominal swelling. The prognosis is often less favorable than HCM, and treatment focuses on managing symptoms and improving quality of life.

Diagnostic Methods for Cardiomyopathies

Accurate diagnosis of cardiomyopathies relies on a combination of techniques. A thorough physical examination, including auscultation of the heart for murmurs or abnormal rhythms, is the first step. Electrocardiography (ECG) provides information about the heart’s electrical activity, helping to identify arrhythmias. Thoracic radiography (chest X-rays) assesses the size and shape of the heart and lungs, revealing signs of enlargement or fluid accumulation. Echocardiography, a non-invasive ultrasound of the heart, is the gold standard for diagnosing cardiomyopathies. It provides detailed images of the heart’s structure and function, allowing for accurate assessment of chamber size, wall thickness, and valve function. Blood tests may also be performed to rule out other underlying conditions.

Genetic Testing and Screening

Genetic testing plays a crucial role in responsible purebred cat breeding, helping to identify cats carrying genes associated with various hereditary diseases. By understanding which cats are carriers or affected, breeders can make informed decisions to minimize the risk of passing these conditions onto future generations, ultimately improving the overall health of the breed. This proactive approach contributes significantly to the well-being of purebred cats.

Genetic testing offers breeders and owners valuable insights into a kitten’s potential health risks. Early identification allows for proactive management strategies, such as dietary modifications, preventative medication, or lifestyle adjustments, that can mitigate the severity of the disease or even prevent its onset altogether. However, it’s important to understand that genetic testing isn’t a perfect predictor; results only reveal the presence or absence of specific genes, not the guaranteed development of a disease. Environmental factors and other genetic influences can also play a significant role.

Types of Genetic Screening Methods

Several methods exist for genetic screening in cats, each with its own strengths and weaknesses. Choosing the appropriate test depends on the specific health concerns of the breed and the available resources. Some common methods include DNA tests analyzing specific genes linked to particular diseases, screening for carrier status, and whole-genome sequencing, which offers a more comprehensive genetic profile but is currently more expensive and complex to interpret.

Interpreting Genetic Test Results

Accurate interpretation of genetic test results requires expertise. Results should be carefully considered alongside the cat’s breed, family history, and overall health status. A veterinarian specializing in feline genetics can provide valuable guidance in understanding the implications of the test results and developing appropriate management plans. For example, a positive result for a recessive gene might mean the cat is a carrier and should be bred carefully to avoid passing on the condition. A positive result for a dominant gene means the cat will likely manifest the condition.

Selecting a Reputable Breeder Utilizing Genetic Testing

Choosing a responsible breeder who incorporates genetic testing into their breeding program is essential for acquiring a healthy kitten. Several factors indicate a breeder’s commitment to genetic health. Reputable breeders will openly discuss the genetic testing they perform, provide documentation of their cats’ test results, and be transparent about any known health issues within their breeding lines. They should actively seek to improve the breed’s health by selecting breeding pairs carefully, avoiding pairings that increase the risk of inheriting genetic diseases. They should also be knowledgeable about the specific genetic predispositions of the breed and be willing to discuss these openly with potential buyers. Furthermore, a commitment to ongoing education and participation in breed-specific health initiatives is a strong indicator of responsible breeding practices.

Nutritional Considerations for Purebred Cats: Health Concerns In Purebred Cats

Proper nutrition is paramount for maintaining the health and well-being of purebred cats, especially given their predisposition to breed-specific health issues. A well-balanced diet can significantly impact the development and management of these conditions, contributing to a longer, healthier life for your feline companion. Failing to address nutritional needs can exacerbate existing problems or even trigger new ones.

Health Concerns in Purebred Cats – Diet plays a crucial role in preventing and managing many common purebred cat health problems. For example, a diet rich in antioxidants may help mitigate the oxidative stress associated with certain cardiomyopathies. Similarly, controlled protein and phosphorus intake can be vital in managing kidney disease, a prevalent issue in some breeds. The right nutrients can support healthy joint development, mitigating the impact of hip dysplasia, while appropriate fat levels can contribute to a healthy coat and skin. Conversely, inappropriate nutrition can worsen these conditions, leading to faster disease progression and reduced quality of life.

Breed-Specific Nutritional Recommendations

Nutritional requirements vary considerably among purebred cat breeds due to differences in size, metabolism, and genetic predispositions. The following list provides general guidelines, but consulting with a veterinary nutritionist is always recommended for personalized dietary plans.

While purebred cats often boast stunning appearances, their genetic predispositions can unfortunately lead to various health concerns. One less life-threatening, yet undeniably irritating, issue is excessive shedding, which can be a real furball of a problem! Fortunately, there are ways to mitigate this, and you can find helpful advice on managing this feline fluff-fest by consulting this excellent resource: How can I prevent my cat from shedding?

. Addressing shedding, however, shouldn’t distract from the importance of regular vet checkups to monitor for more serious breed-specific health issues.

• Maine Coon Cats: These large, slow-maturing cats often benefit from diets formulated for large breeds, focusing on controlled growth to prevent joint issues. High-quality protein sources are essential for muscle development and overall health. Omega-3 fatty acids can support healthy skin and coat.
• Persian Cats: Prone to polycystic kidney disease (PKD), Persians may benefit from diets lower in phosphorus and protein to reduce the burden on their kidneys. Increased water intake should also be encouraged.
• Abyssinian Cats: Known for their active nature, Abyssinians may require higher caloric intake than less active breeds. A balanced diet with appropriate protein and fat levels is crucial for maintaining their energy levels.
• Sphynx Cats: Their lack of coat requires careful consideration of dietary fat to maintain healthy skin and prevent dryness. Higher protein levels may be beneficial to maintain body temperature.

Dietary Management of Specific Health Conditions, Health Concerns in Purebred Cats

Tailoring a cat’s diet to address specific health conditions is crucial for improving their quality of life and slowing disease progression. This often involves adjustments to macronutrient levels (protein, fat, carbohydrates) and the inclusion of specific nutrients.

While purebred cats often boast stunning appearances, their genetic predispositions can unfortunately lead to various health concerns. One less life-threatening, yet undeniably irritating, issue is excessive shedding, which can be a real furball of a problem! Fortunately, there are ways to mitigate this, and you can find helpful advice on managing this feline fluff-fest by consulting this excellent resource: How can I prevent my cat from shedding?

. Addressing shedding, however, shouldn’t distract from the importance of regular vet checkups to monitor for more serious breed-specific health issues.

• Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy (HCM): Diets lower in sodium and taurine supplementation may be beneficial in managing HCM. Maintaining a healthy weight is also important to reduce strain on the heart.
• Feline Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD): Low-protein, low-phosphorus diets are crucial in managing CKD. Increased water intake is also vital. Some veterinary diets are specifically formulated for this condition.
• Diabetes Mellitus: Cats with diabetes require diets that manage blood glucose levels. These diets typically have controlled carbohydrate content and higher fiber.

Sample Meal Plan for a Cat with Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy (HCM)

This sample meal plan is for a 10-pound adult cat diagnosed with HCM. It is crucial to consult with a veterinarian or veterinary nutritionist before implementing any dietary changes. This plan emphasizes low sodium and taurine supplementation.

While purebred cats often boast stunning appearances, their genetic predispositions can unfortunately lead to various health concerns. One less life-threatening, yet undeniably irritating, issue is excessive shedding, which can be a real furball of a problem! Fortunately, there are ways to mitigate this, and you can find helpful advice on managing this feline fluff-fest by consulting this excellent resource: How can I prevent my cat from shedding?

. Addressing shedding, however, shouldn’t distract from the importance of regular vet checkups to monitor for more serious breed-specific health issues.

Meal	Food	Quantity	Notes
Morning	Prescription diet for HCM (low sodium, taurine-supplemented)	1/4 cup	Follow package instructions for appropriate daily intake based on weight.
Afternoon	Small amount of cooked chicken breast (no skin or seasoning)	1-2 tablespoons	Provides additional protein and taurine.
Evening	Prescription diet for HCM (low sodium, taurine-supplemented)	1/4 cup	Follow package instructions for appropriate daily intake based on weight.

Note: This is a sample meal plan and should be adjusted based on the individual cat’s needs and response to the diet. Regular veterinary checkups are essential to monitor the cat’s health and adjust the diet as needed.

While purebred cats often exhibit striking beauty, they can be prone to breed-specific health issues, demanding vigilant care. A crucial aspect of this care, believe it or not, is dental hygiene; so the question arises, how frequently should you engage in the delightful (for them, maybe less so) task of brushing those feline chompers? Find out by checking this helpful resource: How often should I brush my cat’s teeth?

Proper dental care, alongside other preventative measures, is paramount in mitigating the health concerns frequently associated with purebred felines.

The Role of Responsible Breeding

Responsible breeding practices are absolutely crucial for mitigating the health risks inherent in purebred cats. By prioritizing the health and well-being of their cats, breeders can significantly reduce the prevalence of genetic disorders and improve the overall quality of life for these animals. This involves a multifaceted approach that goes beyond simply producing kittens for profit.

Ethical breeders understand that their actions have long-term consequences for the breed’s genetic health. They actively screen for known genetic diseases, carefully select breeding pairs based on health and temperament, and maintain detailed records of their cats’ lineage and health history. This dedication to responsible breeding is not only ethically sound but also contributes to the sustainability of the breed itself.

Ethical Responsibilities of Breeders

Ethical breeders prioritize the health and well-being of their cats above all else. This commitment manifests in several key ways. First, they conduct thorough genetic testing to identify carriers of hereditary diseases before breeding. Second, they avoid breeding cats with known health problems, even if those cats possess desirable physical characteristics. Third, they provide their cats with excellent nutrition, veterinary care, and a safe, enriching environment. Finally, they carefully screen potential buyers to ensure that their kittens will go to loving and responsible homes. This holistic approach reflects a deep understanding of their ethical obligations as animal caretakers.

Resources for Responsible Breeding

Several organizations are dedicated to promoting and supporting responsible breeding practices. The Cat Fanciers’ Association (CFA), for example, sets breed standards and provides resources for breeders, including information on genetic testing and health screening. Similarly, organizations like the International Cat Association (TICA) and various breed-specific clubs offer guidance and support to breeders committed to improving the health of their cats. These resources often include genetic testing recommendations, breed-specific health information, and educational materials on responsible breeding practices. Breeders can access these resources to stay informed about current best practices and contribute to the overall health and well-being of their breed.

Finding a Healthy Purebred Cat

Finding a healthy purebred kitten requires careful research and a discerning eye. It’s an investment of time and resources, but ensuring your new companion starts life healthy and happy is worth the effort. Responsible breeders prioritize the well-being of their animals, and working with one is crucial to finding a healthy kitten.

Selecting a healthy purebred kitten involves a multi-step process that goes beyond simply choosing a cute face. It requires understanding breed-specific health concerns, evaluating the kitten’s physical condition and temperament, and thoroughly vetting the breeder. By following these steps, you can significantly increase your chances of bringing home a thriving feline friend.

Steps to Selecting a Healthy Purebred Kitten from a Responsible Breeder

Choosing a kitten from a responsible breeder is the first and most important step in acquiring a healthy purebred cat. Responsible breeders conduct health screenings, maintain accurate records, and prioritize the overall well-being of their cats. They’re also typically knowledgeable about the breed’s specific health concerns and can offer valuable advice and support.

1. Research Breeds: Thoroughly research different purebred cat breeds to understand their temperaments and common health issues. This allows you to make an informed decision about which breed best suits your lifestyle and capabilities.
2. Find a Reputable Breeder: Identify breeders who prioritize health testing, participate in breed-specific organizations, and provide references. Look for breeders who are open and honest about their breeding practices and the health history of their cats. Avoid breeders who are only focused on profit.
3. Visit the Cattery: Visit the cattery to observe the living conditions of the cats. A clean, well-maintained environment indicates a breeder who prioritizes the well-being of their animals. Observe the parent cats’ behavior and overall health.
4. Examine the Kitten: Carefully examine the kitten’s physical condition. Look for clear eyes, a clean coat, good weight, and no signs of illness or injury. A healthy kitten is alert, playful, and curious.
5. Review Health Records: Request to see the kitten’s health records, including vaccination records and any results from genetic testing or health screenings. A responsible breeder will be happy to provide this information.
6. Ask Questions: Engage in a thorough discussion with the breeder to assess their knowledge and commitment to responsible breeding practices. A knowledgeable breeder will be able to answer your questions thoughtfully and completely.
7. Observe Interactions: Observe how the breeder interacts with the kittens and parent cats. A caring breeder will handle their animals gently and respectfully.

Questions to Ask Potential Breeders

Asking the right questions is crucial in assessing a breeder’s commitment to responsible breeding practices and the health of their kittens. These questions should help you determine if the breeder is prioritizing the well-being of their cats above all else.

• What health testing do you perform on your breeding cats?
• What is the health history of the parents of this kitten?
• Can I see the kitten’s health records?
• What is your return policy, if any?
• What kind of socialization do the kittens receive?
• What is your breeding philosophy?
• May I speak to previous buyers?

Observing the Kitten’s Behavior and Physical Condition

Direct observation of the kitten’s behavior and physical condition provides valuable insight into its overall health. A healthy kitten will exhibit certain characteristics that can help you make an informed decision.

A healthy kitten will be alert, playful, and curious. Its coat should be clean and shiny, and its eyes should be bright and clear. It should have a good weight for its age and show no signs of illness or injury. Avoid kittens that appear lethargic, withdrawn, or have any visible health problems. Remember to observe the kitten’s interactions with its littermates and the breeder to assess its socialization and temperament. A well-socialized kitten will be confident and comfortable in new situations.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

This section addresses some of the most common questions regarding the health of purebred cats, focusing on practical advice and information to help prospective owners make informed decisions. Understanding potential health issues and responsible breeding practices is crucial for ensuring a happy and healthy life for your feline companion.

Most Common Health Problems in Maine Coon Cats

Maine Coons, while magnificent creatures, are prone to certain hereditary conditions. Hip and elbow dysplasia are relatively common, leading to joint pain and lameness. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM), a serious heart condition, also affects a significant percentage of the breed. Other concerns include spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), a progressive neuromuscular disease, and polycystic kidney disease (PKD), a genetic disorder affecting kidney function. Responsible breeders screen for these conditions, but it’s vital to be aware of the potential risks. Early detection through veterinary check-ups and genetic testing can help manage these conditions and improve the cat’s quality of life. It’s important to note that not all Maine Coons will develop these conditions, and responsible breeding practices significantly reduce the risk.

Finding a Reputable Breeder for a Specific Purebred Cat

Finding a responsible breeder is paramount to obtaining a healthy purebred kitten. Start by researching breed-specific organizations; they often maintain lists of reputable breeders who adhere to ethical breeding standards. A reputable breeder will prioritize the health and well-being of their cats, conducting genetic testing to screen for known breed-specific diseases. They will be open and transparent about their breeding practices, readily providing information about the kitten’s parents and their health history. Avoid breeders who prioritize profit over animal welfare, those who are unwilling to answer your questions thoroughly, or those who seem overly eager to sell a kitten without proper screening or vetting. Visiting the cattery to observe the living conditions of the cats is also crucial; healthy cats should appear alert, clean, and well-cared for. A good breeder will welcome your questions and encourage you to thoroughly research the breed and their breeding program.

Signs of a Healthy Purebred Kitten

A healthy purebred kitten should be alert, playful, and have a bright, clear coat. Its eyes should be clear and bright, without discharge. The kitten’s nose should be moist, and its gums should be pink. A healthy kitten will have a good appetite and maintain a healthy weight. Its breathing should be smooth and even, and it should be free from any unusual sounds or labored breathing. The kitten should have clean ears, free from any wax buildup or discharge. The fur should be smooth and glossy, free from matting or excessive shedding. Any signs of lethargy, unusual discharge, or difficulty breathing should raise concerns and warrant a veterinary examination. A reputable breeder will provide a health certificate from a veterinarian confirming the kitten’s good health.

Cost of Genetic Testing for Purebred Cats

The cost of genetic testing for purebred cats varies depending on the specific tests being conducted and the laboratory used. Testing for a single condition might cost between $50 and $150, while comprehensive panels testing for multiple conditions can range from $200 to $500 or more. The cost also depends on the complexity of the genetic test and the number of genes being analyzed. Some breeders include the cost of genetic testing in the purchase price of the kitten, while others charge separately. It’s important to discuss testing costs with the breeder upfront to understand the total expense involved in acquiring a healthy purebred cat. While the initial cost might seem significant, it’s a worthwhile investment in preventing costly health problems later in the cat’s life.

Illustrative Examples

Seeing the common health issues discussed in the context of specific breeds helps solidify understanding. The following examples illustrate how these conditions manifest in individual cats. Remember, these are just examples, and individual presentations can vary.

Persian Cat with Polycystic Kidney Disease (PKD)

This eight-year-old Persian cat, named Princess, presents with several classic signs of PKD. Her coat, typically long and luxurious for her breed, is now dull and lacks its former sheen. She appears somewhat dehydrated, with slightly sunken eyes that are also noticeably paler than usual. Her body condition is noticeably leaner than in previous months; her once plump cheeks are now less full. Princess has also shown a marked increase in thirst and urination, often needing to use her litter box multiple times throughout the night. Behaviorally, she is lethargic and less playful than before, often preferring to sleep more than engage in her usual activities. Her previously bright and alert expression is now clouded with a subtle weariness. While not overtly painful, she shows some discomfort when palpated in the abdominal area.

Sphynx Cat with Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy (HCM)

A three-year-old Sphynx cat named Shadow exhibits symptoms consistent with HCM. While Sphynx cats are known for their muscular builds, Shadow’s musculature appears somewhat underdeveloped compared to other Sphynx cats of his age. He shows signs of respiratory distress, with slightly labored breathing, especially noticeable after exertion, such as playing. His breathing is occasionally punctuated by short, rapid gasps. His energy levels are significantly reduced; he tires easily and spends most of his time resting. While he maintains a good appetite, he’s lost a small amount of weight, possibly due to his reduced activity. A close examination reveals a faint murmur upon auscultation of his heart. Shadow’s owner reports he has experienced episodes of sudden collapse, although these are infrequent.