This handbook supersedes FAA-H-8083-25, Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge, dated 2003. This handbook is available for download, in PDF format,
471 pages
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iiiThe Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge provides basic knowledge that is essential for pilots. This handbook introduces pilots to the broad spectrum of knowledge that will be needed as they progress in their pilot training. Except for the Code of Federal Regulations pertinent to civil aviation, most of the knowledge areas applicable to pilot certifi cation are presented. This handbook is useful to beginning pilots, as well as those pursuing more advanced pilot certifi cates. Occasionally the word “must” or similar language is used where the desired action is deemed critical. The use of such language is not intended to add to, interpret, or relieve a duty imposed by Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR).It is essential for persons using this handbook to become familiar with and apply the pertinent parts of 14 CFR and the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM). The AIM is available online at www.faa.gov. The current Flight Standards Service airman training and testing material and learning statements for all airman certifi cates and ratings can be obtained from www.faa.gov.This handbook supersedes FAA-H-8083-25, Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge, dated 2003. This handbook is available for download, in PDF format, from www.faa.gov. This handbook is published by the United States Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, Airman Testing Standards Branch, AFS-630, P.O. Box 25082, Oklahoma City, OK 73125.Comments regarding this publication should be sent, in email form, to the following address: AFS630comments@faa.govPreface
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vThe Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge was produced by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) with the assistance of Safety Research Corporation of America. The FAA wishes to acknowledge the following contributors: Mrs. Nancy A. Wright for providing imagery of a de Haviland DH-4 inaugural air mail fl ight (Chapter 1) The Raab Collection, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, for images of the fi rst pilot license (Chapter 1) Sandy Kenyon and Rod Magner (magicair.com) for photo of 1929 TravelAir 4000 (Chapter 1) Adventure Seaplanes for photos of a ski and fl oat training plane (Chapter 2) Jack Davis, Stearman Restorers Asociation, for photo of a 1941 PT-17 Army Air Corps trainer (Chapter 2) Michael J. Hoke, Abaris Training Resources, Inc., for images and information about composite aircraft (Chapter 2) M. van Leeuwen (www.zap16.com) for image of Piaggio P-180 (Chapter 5) Greg Richter, Blue Mountain Avionics, for autopilot information and imagery (Chapter 5) Mountain High E&S Company for various images provided regarding oxygen systems (Chapter 6) Jeff Callahan, Aerox, for image of MSK-AS Silicone Mask without Microphone (Chapter 6) Nonin Medical, Inc. for image of Onyx pulse oximeter (Chapter 6) Pilotfriend.com for photo of a TKS Weeping Wing (Chapter 6) Chelton Flight Systems for image of FlightLogic (Chapter 7) Avidyne Corporation for image of the Entegra (Chapter 7) Teledyne Controls for image of an air data computer (Chapter 7) Watson Industries, Inc. (www.watson-gyro.com) for image of Attitude and Heading Reference system (Chapter 7) Dr. Pat Veillette for information used on decision-making (Chapter 17) John Park for image of spinning plates (Chapter 17) Cessna Aircraft Company, Columbia Aircraft Manufacturing Corporation, Eclipse Aviation Corporation, Garmin Ltd., The Boeing Company for images provided and used throughout the Handbook.Additional appreciation is extended to the Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association (AOPA), the AOPA Air Safety Foundation, the General Aviation Manufacturers Association (GAMA), and the National Business Aviation Association (NBAA) for their technical support and input.Acknowledgments
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viiPreface .iii Acknowledgments ..v Table of Contents .vii Chapter 1Introduction To Flying ..1-1Introduction ..1-1 History of Flight .1-2 History of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) 1-3 Transcontinental Air Mail Route ..1-4 Federal Certifi cation of Pilots and Mechanics ..1-4 The Civil Aeronautics Act of 1938 .1-5 The Federal Aviation Act of 1958 1-6 Department of Transportation (DOT) 1-6 Air Traffi c Control (ATC) Automation .1-6 The Professional Air Traffi c Controllers Organization (PATCO) Strike 1-7 The Airline Deregulation Act of 1978 ..1-7 Role of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) ..1-7 The Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) ..1-7 Primary Locations of the FAA ..1-8 Field Offi ces 1-8 Aviation Safety Inspector (ASI) ..1-9 FAA Safety Team (FAASTeam) ..1-9 Obtaining Assistance from the FAA ..1-9 FAA Reference Material ..1-9 Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) 1-9 Handbooks 1-10 Advisory Circulars (ACs) .1-10 Flight Publications 1-11 Pilot and Aeronautical Information .1-11 Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs) .1-11 Safety Program Airmen Notifi cation System (SPANS) ..1-12 Aircraft Types and Categories .1-12 Ultralight Vehicles 1-12 Light Sport Aircraft (LSA) Category ..1-12 Pilot Certifi cations .1-13 Sport Pilot ..1-14 Recreational Pilot ..1-14 Private Pilot ..1-14 Commercial Pilot 1-14 Airline Transport Pilot 1-15 Selecting a Flight School ..1-15 How To Find a Reputable Flight Program 1-15 How To Choose a Certifi cated Flight Instructor (CFI) .1-16 The Student Pilot ..1-16 Basic Requirements ..1-16 Medical Certifi cation Requirements 1-17 Becoming a Pilot .1-17 Knowledge and Skill Examinations ..1-18 Knowledge Examination 1-18 When To Take the Examination 1-18 Where To Take the Examination ..1-18 Practical Examination .1-18 When To Take the Practical Exam ..1-19 Who Administers the Practical Examination? 1-20 Role of the Certifi cated Flight Instructor ..1-20 Role of the Designated Pilot Examiner .1-20 Chapter Summary ..1-21 Chapter 2Aircraft Structure .2-1 Introduction ..2-1 Lift and Basic Aerodynamics ..2-2 Major Components 2-3 Fuselage .2-3 Wings .2-3 Empennage ..2-5 Landing Gear ..2-6 The Powerplant .2-6 Subcomponents ..2-7 Types of Aircraft Construction ..2-7 Truss Structure ..2-7 Semimonocoque 2-8 Table of Contents
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viiiComposite Construction 2-8 History ..2-8 Composite Materials in Aircraft ..2-9 Advantages of Composites .2-9 Disadvantages of Composites 2-9 Fluid Spills on Composites ..2-10 Lightning Strike Protection ..2-10 The Future of Composites 2-11 Instrumentation: Moving into the Future ..2-11 Control Instruments .2-12 Navigation Instruments .2-12 Global Positioning System (GPS) ..2-12 Chapter 3Principles of Flight .3-1 Introduction ..3-1 Structure of the Atmosphere 3-1 Atmospheric Pressure .3-2 Pressure Altitude ..3-2 Density Altitude 3-3 Effect of Pressure on Density 3-3 Effect of Temperature on Density ..3-3 Effect of Humidity (Moisture) on Density .3-3 Theories in the Production of Lift .3-4 Newton’s Basic Laws of Motion ..3-4 Magnus Effect 3-4 Flow of Air Against a Nonrotating Cylinder .3-5 A Rotating Cylinder in a Motionless Fluid .3-5 A Rotating Cylinder in a Moving Fluid 3-5 Bernoulli’s Principle of Differential Pressure 3-7 Airfoil Design .3-7 Low Pressure Above ..3-8 High Pressure Below ..3-9 Pressure Distribution ..3-9 Airfoil Behavior .3-10 A Third Dimension 3-10 Chapter Summary ..3-10 Chapter 4Aerodynamics of Flight 4-1Forces Acting on the Aircraft .4-1 Thrust .4-2 Drag .4-3 Parasite Drag ..4-4 Induced Drag .4-5 Lift/Drag Ratio ..4-6 Weight 4-7 Lift 4-7 Wingtip Vortices 4-8 Formation of Vortices 4-8 Avoiding Wake Turbulence 4-8 Ground Effect ..4-9 Axes of an Aircraft .4-11 Moment and Moment Arm 4-12 Aircraft Design Characteristics ..4-12 Stability ..4-12 Static Stability .4-13 Dynamic Stability .4-13 Longitudinal Stability (Pitching) ..4-14 Lateral Stability (Rolling) .4-16 Vertical Stability (Yawing) ..4-17 Free Directional Oscillations (Dutch Roll) ..4-18 Spiral Instability .4-18 Aerodynamic Forces in Flight Maneuvers .4-19 Forces in Turns 4-19 Forces in Climbs .4-21 Forces in Descents .4-21 Stalls .4-22 Basic Propeller Principles ..4-23 Torque and P-Factor .4-26 Torque Reaction .4-26 Corkscrew Effect 4-26 Gyroscopic Action .4-27 Asymmetric Loading (P-Factor) 4-27 Load Factors ..4-28 Load Factors in Aircraft Design .4-28 Load Factors in Steep Turns .4-29 Load Factors and Stalling Speeds .4-30 Load Factors and Flight Maneuvers .4-31 Vg Diagram ..4-32 Rate of Turn .4-33 Radius of Turn .4-34 Weight and Balance ..4-35 Effect of Weight on Flight Performance 4-37 Effect of Weight on Aircraft Structure 4-37 Effect of Weight on Stability and Controllability .4-38 Effect of Load Distribution ..4-38 High Speed Flight ..4-39 Subsonic Versus Supersonic Flow 4-39 Speed Ranges ..4-40 Mach Number Versus Airspeed .4-41 Boundary Layer ..4-41 Laminar Boundary Layer Flow .4-41 Turbulent Boundary Layer Flow ..4-41 Boundary Layer Separation .4-41 Shock Waves 4-42 Sweepback .4-43 Mach Buffet Boundaries 4-44 High Speed Flight Controls ..4-45 Chapter Summary ..4-46
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ixChapter 5Flight Controls ..5-1 Introduction ..5-1 Flight Control Systems .5-2 Flight Controls 5-2 Primary Flight Controls .5-2 Elevator .5-5 T-Tail .5-6 Stabilator ..5-6 Canard 5-7 Rudder 5-7 V-Tail .5-8 Secondary Flight Controls 5-8 Flaps 5-8 Leading Edge Devices ..5-9 Spoilers ..5-10 Trim Tabs ..5-10 Balance Tabs 5-11 Antiservo Tabs 5-11 Ground Adjustable Tabs 5-11 Adjustable Stabilizer 5-12 Autopilot .5-12 Chapter Summary ..5-12 Chapter 6Aircraft Systems ..6-1 Introduction ..6-1 Powerplant 6-1 Reciprocating Engines 6-2 Propeller 6-4 Fixed-Pitch Propeller .6-5 Adjustable-Pitch Propeller ..6-6 Induction Systems 6-7 Carburetor Systems .6-7 Mixture Control 6-8 Carburetor Icing 6-8 Carburetor Heat 6-9 Carburetor Air Temperature Gauge .6-10 Outside Air Temperature Gauge 6-10 Fuel Injection Systems 6-10 Superchargers and Turbosuperchargers ..6-11 Superchargers ..6-12 Turbosuperchargers ..6-12 System Operation ..6-13 High Altitude Performance ..6-14 Ignition System 6-14 Oil Systems 6-15 Engine Cooling Systems .6-16 Exhaust Systems .6-17 Starting System 6-18 Combustion 6-18 Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC) ..6-19 Turbine Engines ..6-20 Types of Turbine Engines .6-20 Turbojet ..6-20 Turboprop .6-20 Turbofan 6-20 Turboshaft .6-20 Turbine Engine Instruments .6-22 Engine Pressure Ratio (EPR) .6-22 Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) 6-22 Torquemeter .6-22 N1 Indicator ..6-22 N2 Indicator ..6-22 Turbine Engine Operational Considerations 6-22 Engine Temperature Limitations ..6-22 Thrust Variations ..6-22 Foreign Object Damage (FOD) .6-23 Turbine Engine Hot/Hung Start .6-23 Compressor Stalls .6-23 Flameout 6-23 Performance Comparison ..6-24 Airframe Systems ..6-25 Fuel Systems .6-25 Gravity-Feed System ..6-25 Fuel-Pump System 6-25 Fuel Primer 6-25 Fuel Tanks .6-25 Fuel Gauges ..6-26 Fuel Selectors ..6-26 Fuel Strainers, Sumps, and Drains 6-26 Fuel Grades ..6-26 Fuel Contamination ..6-27 Refueling Procedures 6-27 Electrical System 6-28 Hydraulic Systems .6-30 Landing Gear 6-31 Tricycle Landing Gear Airplanes .6-31 Tailwheel Landing Gear Airplanes ..6-31 Fixed and Retractable Landing Gear ..6-31 Brakes ..6-32 Pressurized Aircraft ..6-32 Oxygen Systems..6-34 Oxygen Masks .6-35 Cannula 6-35 Pressure-Demand Oxygen Systems .6-36 Continuous-Flow Oxygen System 6-36 Electrical Pulse-Demand Oxygen System .6-36 Pulse Oximeters ..6-37
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xServicing of Oxygen Systems .6-37 Anti-Ice and Deice Systems ..6-37 Airfoil Anti-Ice and Deice 6-37 Windscreen Anti-Ice 6-38 Propeller Anti-Ice ..6-38 Other Anti-Ice and Deice Systems 6-39 Chapter Summary ..6-39 Chapter 7Flight Instruments ..7-1 Introduction ..7-1 Pitot-Static Flight Instruments 7-1 Impact Pressure Chamber and Lines ..7-2 Static Pressure Chamber and Lines .7-2 Altimeter 7-3 Principle of Operation 7-3 Effect of Nonstandard Pressure and Temperature ..7-4 Setting the Altimeter ..7-5 Altimeter Operation 7-6 Types of Altitude .7-6 Instrument Check .7-7 Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) ..7-7 Principle of Operation 7-7 Instrument Check .7-8 Airspeed Indicator (ASI) ..7-8 Airspeed Indicator Markings .7-9 Other Airspeed Limitations .7-10 Instrument Check ..7-10 Blockage of the Pitot-Static System .7-10 Blocked Pitot System ..7-10 Blocked Static System 7-11 Electronic Flight Display (EFD) .7-12 Airspeed Tape .7-12 Attitude Indicator ..7-12 Altimeter .7-12 Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) 7-12 Heading Indicator ..7-12 Turn Indicator ..7-12 Tachometer 7-12 Slip/Skid Indicator .7-13 Turn Rate Indicator ..7-13 Air Data Computer (ADC) 7-14 Trend Vectors ..7-14 Gyroscopic Flight Instruments .7-15 Gyroscopic Principles .7-15 Rigidity in Space 7-15 Precession .7-15 Sources of Power 7-16 Turn Indicators 7-16 Turn-and-Slip Indicator .7-17 Turn Coordinator ..7-17 Inclinometer .7-18 Yaw String 7-18 Instrument Check ..7-18 Attitude Indicator ..7-18 Heading Indicator ..7-20 Attitude and Heading Reference System (AHRS) 7-20 The Flux Gate Compass System 7-20 Remote Indicating Compass .7-21 Instrument Check ..7-22 Compass Systems ..7-22 Magnetic Compass 7-22 Magnetic Compass Induced Errors ..7-23 The Vertical Card Magnetic Compass 7-26 Lags or Leads ..7-26 Eddy Current Damping ..7-26 Outside Air Temperature (OAT) Gauge .7-26 Chapter Summary ..7-26 Chapter 8Flight Manuals and Other Documents 8-1 Introduction ..8-1 Preliminary Pages .8-2 General (Section 1) ..8-2 Limitations (Section 2) ..8-2 Airspeed 8-2 Powerplant ..8-3 Weight and Loading Distribution 8-3 Flight Limits ..8-4 Placards .8-4 Emergency Procedures (Section 3) .8-4 Normal Procedures (Section 4) .8-4 Performance (Section 5) 8-4 Weight and Balance/Equipment List (Section 6) .8-4 Systems Description (Section 7) ..8-4 Handling, Service, and Maintenance (Section 8) .8-4 Supplements (Section 9) 8-5 Safety Tips (Section 10) 8-5 Aircraft Documents ..8-6 Certifi cate of Aircraft Registration ..8-6 Light Sport Aircraft (LSA) ..8-7 Airworthiness Certifi cate ..8-7 Aircraft Maintenance ..8-8 Aircraft Inspections ..8-8 Annual Inspection 8-8 100-Hour Inspection 8-9 Other Inspection Programs ..8-9 Altimeter System Inspection .8-9 Transponder Inspection 8-9 Emergency Locator Transmitter ..8-9 Prefl ight Inspections ..8-9 Minimum Equipment Lists (MEL) and Operations With
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